1) HOW TO WRITE ESSAYS IN ENGLISH (Take Exam of TOEFL. TOEIC, IELTS, etc...)
Almost all students will at some time be expected to write an essay, or some other kind of argument, e.g. a review or discussion section, in a longer piece of writing. In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long written about one topic, usually based on your reading. The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing.
According to Linda Flower (1990, p. v) "students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose."
Your essay should have the following sections:
1. Preliminaries
Title page
2. Main text
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
3. End matter
References

1. Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information.


2. Main text
English essays are linear:

- they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion.
The main text of the essay has three main parts:
I. An introduction
II. A main body
III. A conclusion
I. The introduction.
The introduction consists of two parts:
a. It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the reader’s attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.
b. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.
It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing.
II. The main body.
The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development.
III. The conclusion.
The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.
a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main body
b. and explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the essay as a whole?
It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.
^
I. INTRODUCTION
General Statement
Organisation Statement


II. MAIN BODY
A. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence


B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence


C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence


III. CONCLUSION
Recall issues in introduction;
draw together main points;
final comment.

3. End Matter
At the end of the essay, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the assignment. See Writing a list of references for more information on the reference list.


2) HOW TO WRITE REPORTS IN ENGLISH (FOR UNDERGRADUATE, MASTER, DOCTORAL STUDENT, AND RESEARCHER, ETC…)

Many students, particularly science and business students, will at some time be expected to write a report.
Example
Your report should have the following sections:
1. Preliminaries
Title page
Abstract
Contents
2. Main text
Introduction
Methodology
Findings/Results
Discussion
Conclusion
3. End matter
References
Appendices
^
1. Preliminaries
Before you start the main part of your report, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information. A report should also normally include an abstract and a contents page. The abstract should give some background information, clearly state the principal purpose of the report, give some information about the methodology used, state the most important results and the conclusion. See: Functions - Writing an abstract. The contents page will give page numbers for the main sections.
2. The main text
The main body consists of several paragraphs of ideas, data and argument. Each section develops a subdivision of the report purpose. The introduction gives background knowledge that supports the reason for writing the report and an organisation statement. The methodology section gives details of how the information in the report was obtained. Findings and results give the data that has been collected, while the discussion argues that the results lead to the clearly expressed conclusion. The sections are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the report must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development.
I. Introduction
II. Methodology
III. Findings/Results
IV. Discussion
V. Conclusion
I. The introduction.
The introduction consists of three parts:
a. It should include a short review of the literature to provide a background to your report and to attract the reader’s attention. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the report, etc.
b. It should try to explain why you are writing the report. You need to establish a gap in current knowledge.
c. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.
It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing. See: Functions - Writing Introductions
II. Methodology.
The methodology section gives details of how the information in the report was obtained. It may give details of the materials and procedures used. In any kind of experimental report, details of the people involved will need to be included. See: Functions - Writing Research Methods
III. Findings/Results.
The findings and results give the data that has been collected. This may be shown in the form of tables, graphs or diagrams. In all cases, reference must be made to the location of the information, the main details of the data and any comments on this. See: Functions - Writing Research Results
IV. Discussion.
The main purpose of the discussion is to show that the results lead clearly to the conclusion being drawn. This may include any limitations that might cause problems with any claims being made as well as any possible explanations for these results. See: Functions - Writing Research Discussions
V. The conclusion.
The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.
a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the results and discussion
b. and come to a clear conclusion.
It should clearly signal to the reader that the report is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the report has been achieved. See: Functions - Writing Conclusions
^
I. INTRODUCTION
Background
Identification of Gap
Organisation Statement


II. METHODOLOGY
Introductory Sentence - Overview
Procedures
Materials
...
Concluding Sentence


III. FINDINGS/RESULTS
Introductory Sentence
Locating Results
Findings
Comment
...
Concluding Sentence


IV. DISCUSSION
Introductory Sentence - Overview
Review of Findings
Possible Explanations
Limitations
...
Concluding Sentence


V. CONCLUSION
Recall Issues in Introduction - Report Purpose;
Draw Together Main Points;
Final Comment - Clear Conclusion.

3. End Matter
At the end of the report, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the report. See Writing a list of references for more information on the reference list. The appendices may contain full details of data collected.

Acknowledgements.
It is impossible to write anything about writing without acknowledging the many text books that I have used during the last 25 years. I have been influenced and leaned from them all. The first book I ever used was Janelle Cooper's Think and Link (Edward Arnold, 1979) and this was followed closely by Bob Jordan's Academic Writing Course (Collins, 1980). Liz Hamp-Lyons and Karen Berry Courter's Research Matters (Newbury House, 1984) helped my thoughts on the process of academic writing. Robert Weissberg & Suzanne Buker's Writing up Research (Prentice-Hall, 1990) and John Swales and Christine Feak's Academic Writing for Graduate Students (University of Michigan Press, 1994) started me thinking about whole pieces of academic writing and how they are made up.

3) ESSAY SAMPLES:

3.1 COMPETITION AND COOPERATION
Both competition and cooperation play a large role in the advancement of society, both in business and non-business areas. Competition forces people to improve their products or services, and hence benefits the recipients of these products or services. Cooperation, however, plays an even more important role in development of individuals and the society as a whole, because it drastically increases the scale of these improvements. Working in groups and teams far increases the productivity of individuals. Thus, I firmly believe children should be taught to cooperate rather than to compete.

First of all, cooperation is an important skill in the future life of all children. They will need to live with other people throughout their life, since they will not study alone, work alone, nor spend their leisure time alone. If they do not know how to cooperate with their classmates, their colleagues, and other family members, then they will lose the chance to live happily. Thus, cooperation skills should be taught before they grow up to face serious problems living with others.

Furthermore, cooperation is a significant contributing factor to the development of society. While competition generally ends in a win-lose result, cooperation advocates that one plus one is larger than two, three or even a larger number. For example, the competition of two business firms would ultimately lead to the result that one becomes stronger and the other fails and goes out of business. However, if they cooperate with each other successfully, they may group together to form an enterprise larger than the mere sum of the two. The more successful cooperation there is, the better the society develops. Thus, cooperation should be taught to children, because eventually they will be the executives of important corporations.
Admittedly, competition also plays a significant role in many areas. Stressed by the competition, individuals and organizations have to struggle to survive, and so they are forced to make improvements and develop.
However, in comparison, cooperation is more effective in helping individuals and societies to develop, because it benefits not only individuals, but also society as a whole. The reality is that children should be taught both, but if forced to choose only one, parents should undoubtedly teach their kids to cooperate rather than to compete.
While many individuals complain that they are not sufficiently clever to succeed in life, I firmly believe that personality and development are decided more by education and training after birth than any given gene.

3.2) NATURE AND NURTURE

To begin with, environment is a determining factor of one's personality. One may think that personality is already shaped once a baby is born, but in fact there are many contributing factors. The baby, for instance, would most likely be pessimistic if he or she lived in a poor family, where the baby always received punishment from his parents. His view of life would be very different from another individual who lived happily in a perfect nurturing family with encouragement and psychological support from his parents.

Further, education after birth plays a significantly role in one's development. Education, which helps children develop their thinking and accumulate their knowledge, is a deciding factor of one's success. For example, a high-school level person commonly may not to the extent of a person who has received an university education. This is not only because of the greater breadth of knowledge acquired, but also due to a more critical and focused way of thinking that is imparted and refined during ones senior education. A wolf child, to offer another instance, due to a deficiency of education by contact with human beings, could hardly live in our society or self-develop.
There are many lovely things in our lives such as the fresh air on a winter day, the beauty of the country in autumn, learning of love and the growing of a friendship. Everyone has friends or desires friends in the pursuit of sharing emotions. Thus many people enjoy spending most of their time with friends, like me, while others prefer to remain alone.


3.3) BEING ALONE OR WITH FRIENDS

There is no doubt one needs time for oneself. When I retreat to my dorm at the end of the workday there is no one to tell me what to do. I often write little secrets in my dairy, enjoy soothing music without being disturbed or read philosophy books. Being alone provides a time to reflect and ponder one’s future life course, with a greater clarity and purpose. Accompanied by many friends from the dorm I would have no chance to relish such retreats.

On the other hand, spending time with friends is stimulating and provides a mental break from ones daily routine. Since I am a sociable and open person, I invariably feel happy and relaxed when I do things with my close friends. We can take part in all kinds of after-school activities such as playing volleyball, swimming or climbing. Some profound, or stimulating ideas often appear in my mind when I am with such friends while being alone often no such inspiration manifests.

3.4) MONEY AND SUCCESS

The notion of success holds different meanings for different people and groups. Such meanings have changed and evolved over time. Actually, many propose that possessing an abundance of money implies success. However, this view is rendered obsolete in the minds of those individuals who hold that one's success cannot be measured strictly by money.
Material possession has been traditionally accepted as the measurement of one's success or social status. When we initially refer to someone, we routinely mention how much money he owns and thereby believe this individual to be quite successful if he is wealthy. In addition to this perpetuated concept, owning a lot of money is typically related to one's work ability and thus some people may simply consider money as a prime measurement of one's success.

However, this view has changed recently since many people have come to recognize that money in many cases cannot bring about happiness, health and success. A more precise, contemporaneous definition of success means doing the things one perceives are valuable to themselves and beneficial for others. The winner of the Nobel Prize for peace may think he is has achieved success although he is rewarded little financial benefit. A person who loves animals and makes an effort to save animals that are on a path of extinction may think he has gained success although he may have expended all of his money on his career.

Another individual may define success as being able to make artistic masterpieces that can be accepted by public. As a composer, success is having his work praised by adoring fans and who help cause the work to be bought the world over. Similarly, holding an exhibition in a famous art gallery may connote success for a painter.

4) SAMPLES FOR SCIENTIFIC REPORT
4.1 Please see websites following as:
LINK HERE
LINK HERE
4.2 Example for searching Websites of international journal (any samples report)
LINK HERE
LINK HERE
LINK HERE
LINK HERE

4.3 Short Report
Title: Comparison of physico-chemical and microbial properties of two residues from anaerobic digestion of organic solid waste during thermophilic composting
ABSTRACT
In this study, we compared the physicochemical and microbial properties of residues from two OFMSW-fed anaerobic digesters during thermophilic composting. Results showed they have different CO2 and NH3 emissions, pH, moisture content, microbial cell densities and DGGE band patterns due to depend on the difference in the compostion of composting substrate of the organic matter.
Keywords: anaerobic residues, composting, DNA, PCR, DGGE, OFMSW, thermophilic
INTRODUCTION
Aerobic composting is generally considered as a necessary post-treatment for residual solids after anaerobic digestion. The latter is usually wet, not yet hygienic and contains a notable amount of volatile fatty acids, which are somewhat phytotoxic. The composition of these residues may vary depending on the source and these variations may have effects on the characteristics of the composting substrate and final product. Hence, in view of treating the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) via anaerobic-aerobic digestion, this study aimed to compare the physico-chemical and microbial properties of residues from two OFMSW-fed anaerobic digesters during thermophilic composting.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
We collected residual solids from two anaerobic digesters fed with different blends of municipal solid waste (Run A: from The Shizouka Research Institute, with 100% OFMSW & Run B: from Takuma Co., Kyoto, with 70% OFMSW and 30% garbage) and compared their physico-chemical and microbial changes during thermophilic (60°C) composting. Pyrex glass cylindrical reactors (45 mm in diameter, 100 mm in depth) equipped at the top and bottom with silicone rubber stoppers and glass pipes for aeration was used. The raw material was blended to have an initial mixture having a dry weight ratio residue: sawdust: inoculum of 5:14:1. The C/N of raw material of Runs A and B were 6.7 and 16.7, respectively. The amount of CO2 and NH3 emissions, moisture content and pH were measured. Changes in microbial profile were investigated using dilution plating method (culture-dependent method) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) method. DNA was extracted using Kit ISOIL for Beads Beating (Nippon Gene Co, Ltd.). The target DNA 341–534 was PCR-amplified with forward primer 357F-GC, and reverse primer 517R. The PCR profile consisted of 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 1 min, annealing at 55°C for 1 min, and extension at 72°C for 90 s. DGGE was performed with the DCodeTM Universal Mutation Detection System (Bio-Rad Laboratories) using 6% polyacrylamide gel with a 30–60% denaturant gradient, where 100% denaturant corresponded to 7 M urea and 40% formamide.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The emission rate of CO2 (EC), which is an indicator of the degree of organic matter decomposition in the compost was 52.0% in Run A and 46.1% in Run B after 10 d (Fig. 1). About half of the CO2 was emitted during the first 2 d. Compared to composting OFMSW without prior anaerobic digestion, the composting period in these runs was much shorter (6 d). This is expected as much of the organic matter in the raw OFMSW was already removed during the prior 20-30 d anaerobic digestion. The final value of emission rate of Run A was higher than that of Run B. It indicated that easily degradable organic material in Run A was higher than Run B and the C/N ratio of Run A was low than Run B. The NH3 emission rate was 24.0% in Run A and 10.0% in Run B after 10 days (Fig. 1). Alexander (1977) reported that lower C/N ratios will bring higher decomposition rate and nitrogen loss. In Run A with lower C/N ratio was shown in increased nitrogen loss more than Run B. In both Runs A and B, the pH dropped slightly to 7.88 (Fig. 1) during the first 2 d probably due to an accumulation of organic acids associated with slurry degradation or consumption of ammonium ion by microorganisms. During the next 2 d, the pH in Run A increased and remained higher than that in Run B until the tenth day. These results indicate that further degradation of slurry as EC of Run A was higher than Run B coincide pH of Run A higher than Run B. During the first 4 d, the moisture content slowly decreased from 60.3% to 55.5% in both runs and rapidly dropped to 30.4 and 28.5%, respectively, in Run A and B (Fig. 1). The microbial cell density in Run A was much higher than in Run B during the first 4 d (Fig. 2). From day 4 to 10, it was similar. A possible explanation to this is that the C:N ratio in Run A was much lower than that in Run B with of anaerobic residuals during composting. Based on a previous work (Larsen et al. 2000), we expect that different components in the residual solids would require different groups of microorganisms for their degradation. Thus, we can see differences in both microbial species and population to grow on different composting substrate. The DGGE band patterns from the two runs are presented in Fig. 2. In Run A, there were more DGGE bands than in the original material. These DNA profile did not change so much and was stable during day 2-10. While in Run B, the DGGE patterns changed from day 2 until day 10 and were different from that of the original material and especially in the tenth day, only a small number of bands were seen. These results show that the microbial properties during a composting differed with the material that was treated, as also found by Klamer and Baath, 1998).

Figure 1: Emission rate of CO2 and NH3, pH and moisture content changes in Runs A and B

Figure 2: Microbial changes and DGGE band patterns in Runs A and B
CONCLUSION
The organic matter degradation, pH, moisture content, cell density of microorganisms and the change in DGGE bands patterns for two composting differed from each other. It was thus ascertained that the variation in physico-chemical and microbial properties of thermophilic composting would be brought about by the difference in the compositions of composting substrate of solid residual from anaerobic digestion process.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the JICA- AUNSEED-Net and Prof Nakasaki’s Lab for the financial support to this study.
References
Alexander, M. (1977) Introduction to Soil Microbiology, 2ndJohn Wiley & Sons, NY, pp. 67-112.
Klamer, M. and Baath, E. (1998) Microbial community dynamics during composting of straw material studied using phospholipids fatty acid analysis. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 27, 9-20.
Larsen, K.L. and McCartney, D.M. (2000) Effect of C:N ratios on microbial activity and N retention: bech-sacle study using pulp and paper biosolids. Compost Science and ultilization 8, 147-159.